(d) Statement-I for incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Thermal Properties of Land and Water:
1. Land: Land has a lower specific heat capacity than water, meaning it heats up and cools down more quickly.
2. Water: Water has a higher specific heat capacity and therefore heats up and cools down more slowly.
Seasonal Temperature Variations:
Summer: During summer, both land and ocean surfaces are exposed to increased solar radiation. Although land heats up faster, the oceans also warm significantly. The temperature difference between land and water is not as extreme because both are receiving substantial heat.
Winter: In winter, land cools down much faster than oceans due to its lower specific heat capacity. The oceans retain more heat and cool down slowly. This creates a larger temperature contrast between the colder continents and the relatively warmer oceans.

(b) 2 only
Statement 1: Incorrect. Groundwater reserves surpass the water volume in rivers and lakes. Groundwater, stored in underground aquifers, constitutes a substantial portion of Earth’s freshwater resources. It’s crucial for sustaining ecosystems, agriculture, and human consumption. While rivers and lakes are visible surface water bodies, their combined volume is less than that of groundwater.
Statement 2: Correct. Polar ice caps and glaciers hold a significant amount of Earth’s freshwater, exceeding groundwater reserves. These ice masses store freshwater in solid form, primarily in Antarctica and Greenland. As they melt due to climate change, they contribute to rising sea levels and freshwater release into the oceans. Their melting poses significant concerns for global sea level rise and impacts on coastal regions worldwide.

(b) 2 and 3 only
Global Ocean Commission: This commission doesn’t have the authority to grant licenses for seabed exploration and mining. International seabed mineral exploration is regulated by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
India and Seabed Mineral Exploration: India has shown interest in exploring seabed minerals in international waters and may have participated in exploration initiatives. However, licenses for exploration are granted by the ISA, not the Global Ocean Commission.
Rare Earth Minerals on Seafloor: Rare earth elements are indeed found on the seafloor in specific locations within international waters. These can be potential resources for future mining endeavors.
Therefore, while the Global Ocean Commission isn’t directly involved in seabed mineral exploration licensing, India’s exploration efforts and the presence of rare earth minerals in international waters seem more likely to be true statements.

(c) 1 and 3 only
Catalonia – Spain (Correct): This pair is accurate. Catalonia is an autonomous region with its own culture and government within the larger country of Spain.
Crimea – Hungary (Incorrect): Crimea’s situation is more complex. It’s a peninsula currently under Russian control, although Ukraine also claims it. Hungary is a separate nation entirely, located in Central Europe.
Mindanao – Philippines (Correct): This pair is also accurate. Mindanao is a large island and the second-largest by area in the Philippines.
Oromia – Nigeria (Incorrect): This is another mismatched pair. Oromia is a regional state situated in Ethiopia, a country in East Africa. Nigeria is a separate nation in West Africa.

(c) Pennar
The Gandikota Canyon in South India was carved by the Pennar River. This breathtaking canyon, also known as the Grand Canyon of India, is situated near the village of Gandikota in Andhra Pradesh. Over millions of years, the Pennar River has eroded the sandstone landscape, creating deep gorges and stunning rock formations that stretch for miles.
The Pennar River originates in the Nandi Hills of Karnataka and flows through Andhra Pradesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. As it meanders through the rocky terrain, the river’s erosive force gradually carved out the Gandikota Canyon, leaving behind steep cliffs and rugged terrain that attract visitors and outdoor enthusiasts from around the country.
The Gandikota Canyon is not only a natural wonder but also holds historical significance, with the Gandikota Fort perched atop its cliffs, offering panoramic views of the surrounding landscape. It serves as a reminder of the geological forces that have shaped the region over millennia and continues to be a popular destination for tourists and adventurers alike.